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National Institute of Health Published Studies about Healing
Additional Information

Medical Studies



1. The Role of Heat Therapy in Exercise Recovery and Muscle Rehabilitation

  • Title: Turning Up the Heat: An Evaluation of the Evidence for Heating to Promote Exercise Recovery, Muscle Rehabilitation, and Adaptation
  • Authors: Hamish McGorm, Llion A Roberts, Jeff S Coombes, Jonathan M Peake
  • Published in: Sports Medicine (2018)
  • Summary: This narrative review evaluates various heat therapy methods for muscle recovery, rehabilitation, and adaptation. The study discusses the physiological rationale behind heat therapy and its effects before, during, and after muscle injury, immobilization, and strength training. Findings suggest that heat therapy can reduce muscle damage, prevent atrophy, and promote regeneration. In humans, microwave diathermy and hot water immersion have shown benefits in mitigating muscle soreness and restoring function. However, the effectiveness of post-exercise heat therapy varies. The review highlights the need for further research to optimize heat therapy for muscle preservation, particularly in aging populations and injury recovery.
  • Link: PubMed Link


2. Hyperthermia Induced by Microwave Diathermy in the Management of Muscle and Tendon Injuries

  • Title: Hyperthermia Induced by Microwave Diathermy in the Management of Muscle and Tendon Injuries
  • Authors: A. Giombini, V. Giovannini, A. Di Cesare, P. Pacetti, Noriko Ichinoseki-Sekine, M. Shiraishi, Hisashi Naito, Nicola Maffulli
  • Published in: British Medical Bulletin (2007)
  • Summary: This study explores the effects of hyperthermia induced by microwave diathermy on muscle and tendon injuries. The technique raises deep tissue temperatures between 41°C and 45°C using electromagnetic power and has been widely used in physical medicine and sports traumatology. Research findings indicate that microwave diathermy stimulates tissue repair, enhances drug activity, alleviates pain, aids in waste removal, increases tendon extensibility, and reduces muscle and joint stiffness. The therapy also promotes hyperaemia, improves tissue drainage, accelerates metabolism, and induces cellular changes. While the exact biological mechanisms linking thermal dose to healing remain under investigation, microwave diathermy at 434 and 915 MHz has shown short-term effectiveness in managing musculoskeletal injuries.
  • Link: PubMed Link


3. Shortwave Diathermy Enhances Ankle Dorsiflexion More Than Stretching Alone

  • Title: Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy and Prolonged Long-Duration Stretching Increase Dorsiflexion Range of Motion More Than Identical Stretching Without Diathermy
  • Authors: S. E. Peres, D. O. Draper, K. L. Knight, M. D. Ricard
  • Published in: Journal of Athletic Training (2002)
  • Summary: This study investigated the effects of pulsed shortwave diathermy (PSWD) combined with stretching on ankle dorsiflexion range of motion (ROM). Forty-four college students were divided into four groups: control, stretching alone, diathermy plus stretching, and diathermy plus stretching followed by ice. Over 14 sessions spanning three weeks, participants receiving diathermy and stretching demonstrated significantly greater ROM improvements compared to those stretching alone. The benefits persisted even six days after treatment concluded, indicating that PSWD enhances the long-term effects of stretching on flexibility.
  • Link: PubMed Link


4. Effects of Far-Infrared Radiation Lamp Therapy on Recovery from Muscle Damage

  • Title: Effects of Far-Infrared Radiation Lamp Therapy on Recovery from Muscle Damage Induced by Eccentric Exercise
  • Authors: Trevor C. Chen, Yuh-Chuan Huang, Tai-Ying Chou, Sheng-Tsung Hsu, Mei-Yen Chen, Kazunori Nosaka
  • Published in: European Journal of Sport Science (2023)
  • Summary: This study examined the effects of far-infrared radiation (FIR) lamp therapy on muscle damage and proprioception following eccentric exercise of the elbow and knee flexors. In a controlled experiment, 24 sedentary women received either FIR therapy or a sham treatment. The FIR group showed significantly faster recovery in muscle strength and proprioception, reduced muscle soreness by 55-60%, and lowered peak plasma creatine kinase activity by 45-89%. FIR therapy accelerated recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage more effectively than previously studied interventions.
  • Link: PubMed Link


5. Far-Infrared Radiation and Its Therapeutic Parameters in Regenerative Medicine

  • Title: Far-Infrared Radiation and Its Therapeutic Parameters: A Superior Alternative for Future Regenerative Medicine?
  • Authors: Bo Qin, Shi-Jie Fu, Xiong-Fei Xu, Jiu-Jie Yang, Yuping Wang, Lin-Na Wang, Bai-Xiong Huang, Jing Zhong, Wan-Yu Wu, Heng-Ao Lu, Betty Yuen Kwan Law, Nick Wang, Io Nam Wong, Vincent Kam Wai Wong
  • Published in: Pharmacological Research (2024)
  • Summary: This review explores the potential of far-infrared radiation (FIR) as an essential component of future regenerative medicine. It systematically outlines FIR's therapeutic parameters—wavelength range, power density, irradiation time, and distance—while examining its biological effects and molecular mechanisms. The study highlights the therapeutic potential of FIR in various diseases, emphasizing its ability to influence cellular processes and enhance tissue regeneration. Despite its promising applications, the lack of standardized parameters limits widespread clinical adoption. The review suggests that FIR could become a superior alternative therapy in regenerative medicine.
  • Link: PubMed Link


6. Continuous Short-Wave (Radio-Frequency) Diathermy

  • Title: Continuous Short-Wave (Radio-Frequency) Diathermy
  • Authors: G. C. Goats
  • Published in: British Journal of Sports Medicine (1989)
  • Summary: This study examines the use of continuous shortwave diathermy (SWD) as a method for achieving uniform deep tissue heating. It highlights that continuous SWD is effective in treating sub-acute or chronic conditions by promoting vasodilation, reducing swelling, and increasing joint range of motion. The study also notes that acute injuries respond better to pulsed SWD. The findings suggest that continuous SWD can relieve pain and muscle spasms while improving connective tissue compliance and reducing joint stiffness, making it comparable to ultrasound therapy.
  • Link: PubMed Link


7. The Effect of Microwave Therapy on Muscle Blood Flow

  • Title: The Effect of Microwave Therapy Upon Muscle Blood Flow in Man
  • Authors: D. J. Wyper, D. R. McNiven
  • Published in: British Journal of Sports Medicine (1976)
  • Summary: This study measured muscle blood flow using a radioactive tracer technique in five healthy subjects. Researchers found that microwave therapy at 2450 MHz significantly increased muscle blood flow compared to resting values. The mean blood flow increased from 2.9 ml/100g/min at rest to 11.4 ml/100g/min during microwave therapy. The study concluded that microwave therapy has a greater effect on muscle blood flow than other therapeutic modalities, highlighting its potential benefits for tissue perfusion and recovery.
  • Link: PubMed Link


8. Preconditioning with Hyperthermia to Reduce Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage

  • Title: Preconditioning with Whole-Body or Regional Hyperthermia Attenuates Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage in Rodents
  • Authors: T. Mikami, H. Yamauchi
  • Published in: Physiological Research (2022)
  • Summary: This study investigated whether hyperthermia before exercise could protect against exercise-induced muscle damage. Two preconditioning methods were evaluated in rodents: whole-body heat exposure (42°C for 30 min) and regional heating of the legs using microwave diathermy. Both methods significantly increased HSP70 and HSP25 levels in the soleus muscle. Muscle damage markers, including plasma creatine kinase and beta-glucuronidase, were lower in heat-exposed rodents than in controls. Histological analysis confirmed reduced muscle damage. These findings suggest that pre-exercise hyperthermia, including microwave diathermy, enhances muscle protection by increasing heat shock proteins and reducing structural damage.
  • Link: PubMed Link


9. Shortwave and Microwave Diathermy for Nerve Regeneration

  • Title: Role of Shortwave and Microwave Diathermy in Peripheral Neuropathy
  • Authors: T. Fu, W.C. Lineaweaver, F. Zhang, J. Zhang
  • Published in: Journal of International Medical Research (2019)
  • Summary: This review analyzed the effects of shortwave and microwave diathermy on nerve regeneration in both animal models and human patients. Animal studies showed that diathermy improved nerve healing by increasing the number of myelinated fibers, myelin sheath thickness, and axon diameter, leading to better nerve function. In clinical studies involving 128 patients with carpal tunnel syndrome, diathermy was associated with reduced pain, improved hand function, and better electrophysiological outcomes. These findings suggest that shortwave and microwave diathermy may be beneficial for peripheral nerve repair.
  • Link: PubMed Link


10. Effects of Heat, Cold, and Pressure on the Transverse Carpal Ligament and Median Nerve

  • Title: Effect of Heat, Cold, and Pressure on the Transverse Carpal Ligament and Median Nerve: A Pilot Study
  • Authors: Michael Laymon, Jerrold Petrofsky, James McKivigan, Haneul Lee, JongEun Yim
  • Published in: Medical Science Monitor (2015)
  • Summary: This pilot study investigated the effects of heat, cold, and pressure on the median nerve and transverse carpal ligament in healthy individuals. Using ultrasound imaging, researchers assessed ligament elasticity, nerve conduction velocity, and structural changes. Heat therapy (60-120 minutes) increased ligament and tendon elasticity, while cold exposure (20 minutes) reduced compression of the carpal ligament and nerve. Pressure did not significantly alter tissue structure at room temperature or after cold exposure. The findings suggest that heat enhances tissue flexibility, whereas cold may help reduce compression in conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome.
  • Link: PubMed Link


11. Shortwave Diathermy Enhances Hamstring Flexibility

  • Title: Shortwave Diathermy and Prolonged Stretching Increase Hamstring Flexibility More Than Prolonged Stretching Alone
  • Authors: D.O. Draper, J.L. Castro, B. Feland, S. Schulthies, D. Eggett
  • Published in: Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy (2004)
  • Summary: This study examined whether shortwave diathermy enhances hamstring flexibility when combined with stretching. Thirty college students with tight hamstrings were divided into three groups: (1) diathermy plus stretching, (2) sham diathermy plus stretching, and (3) control. After five days, the diathermy group improved knee extension by 15.8°, significantly more than the sham group (5.2°) and the control (-0.3°). Flexibility gains were better maintained in the diathermy group. These results suggest that combining shortwave diathermy with stretching is an effective method to improve and sustain hamstring flexibility.
  • Link: PubMed Link


12. Shortwave Diathermy Enhances Recovery in Lateral Epicondylitis

  • Title: Continuous Shortwave Diathermy with Exercise Reduces Pain and Improves Function in Lateral Epicondylitis More Than Sham Diathermy: A Randomized Controlled Trial
  • Authors: A. Babaei-Ghazani, B. Shahrami, E. Fallah, T. Ahadi, B. Forough, S. Ebadi
  • Published in: Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies (2020)
  • Summary: This study evaluated the effectiveness of continuous shortwave diathermy (SWD) in treating chronic lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow). Fifty patients were assigned to either an SWD + exercise group or a sham diathermy + exercise group. The SWD group received 15 minutes of 40-60 W continuous SWD along with specific exercises. Pain, function, and grip strength were measured at baseline, after 5 and 10 treatment sessions, and at 3 months. The SWD group showed significantly greater improvements in all outcomes compared to the control group. These findings suggest that SWD enhances pain relief and functional recovery in lateral epicondylitis.
  • Link: PubMed Link


13. Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Stimulation for Tendon-Bone Healing

  • Title: Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound Stimulation for Tendon-Bone Healing: A Dose-Dependent Study
  • Authors: Hongbin Lu, Fei Liu, Can Chen, Zhanwen Wang, Huabin Chen, Jin Qu, Tao Zhang, Daqi Xu, Jianzhong Hu
  • Published in: American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation (2018)
  • Summary: This study examined the effects of different dosages of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) on tendon-bone healing in rabbits. Three groups were compared: a control group (no ultrasound), a once-daily (qd) treatment group, and a twice-daily (bid) treatment group. Results showed that the bid group exhibited significantly greater new bone formation, mineralization, fibrocartilage development, and improved mechanical properties at the healing site compared to the other groups. Findings suggest that twice-daily LIPUS treatment is more effective for enhancing tendon-bone healing than a once-daily treatment.
  • Link: PubMed Link


14. Effect of Manual Therapy and Neurodynamic Techniques vs Ultrasound and Laser on Two-Point Discrimination in CTS

  • Title: Effect of Manual Therapy and Neurodynamic Techniques vs Ultrasound and Laser on 2PD in Patients with CTS: A Randomized Controlled Trial
  • Authors: Tomasz Wolny, Edward Saulicz, Pawel Linek, Andrzej Mysliwiec, Mariola Saulicz
  • Published in: Journal of Hand Therapy (2016)
  • Summary: This randomized controlled trial investigated the effects of manual therapy and neurodynamic techniques versus ultrasound and laser therapy on two-point discrimination (2PD) in carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) patients. Participants were divided into two groups: one received neurodynamic mobilization and manual therapy, while the other underwent electrophysical modalities (red/infrared laser and ultrasound). After 20 therapy sessions over 10 weeks, both groups showed significant improvement in 2PD in symptomatic hands (p < .001). However, no statistically significant difference was observed between the two treatments, indicating that both approaches were equally effective in improving sensory function in CTS patients.
  • Link: PubMed Link


15. Collagen Shortening: An Experimental Approach with Heat

  • Title: Collagen Shortening: An Experimental Approach with Heat
  • Authors: C.T. Vangsness Jr, W. Mitchell 3rd, M. Nimni, M. Erlich, V. Saadat, H. Schmotzer
  • Published in: Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (1997)
  • Summary: This in vitro study investigated the effects of heat on human collagen, specifically its ability to shrink and its mechanical and histological changes. Fresh frozen human tendons were subjected to heat in a saline solution, demonstrating a predictable shrinkage curve. A sharp increase in shrinkage (up to 70% of the original length) was observed around 70°C. Additionally, an Nd:YAG laser was used to induce precise, dose-dependent collagen shortening. Tendons shortened by 10% exhibited a significant decrease in load-to-failure strength (to about one-third of control specimens). Histological analysis revealed distinct thermal denaturation zones while preserving adjacent collagen. These findings suggest that collagen can be precisely shortened using heat, though further research is needed to assess biological responses, including recollagenization and long-term biomechanical effects.
  • Link: PubMed Link


16. Effect of Heat and Cold on Tendon Flexibility and Force to Flex the Human Knee

  • Title: Effect of Heat and Cold on Tendon Flexibility and Force to Flex the Human Knee
  • Authors: Jerrold Scott Petrofsky, Michael Laymon, Haneul Lee
  • Published in: Medical Science Monitor (2013)
  • Summary: This study quantified the effects of heat and cold on knee tendon flexibility and the force required to flex the knee. Twenty male and female subjects participated in four experimental conditions: (1) room temperature, (2) cold application (ice pack for 20 min), (3) heat application (hydrocollator heat packs for 20 min), and (4) prolonged heat application (ThermaCare heat wraps for 4 hours). Ligament extensibility was measured using a KT2000 arthrometer, and the force required for knee flexion was assessed using continuous passive motion (CPM). Results showed that heat increased the flexibility of the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments and reduced the force required for knee flexion by about 25%, while cold had the opposite effect. These findings suggest that heat therapy may enhance flexibility and reduce injury risk, whereas cold therapy may restrict movement.
  • Link: PubMed Link


17. Infrared Laser Improves Collagen Organization in Muscle & Tendon Tissue

  • Title: Infrared Laser Improves Collagen Organization in Muscle and Tendon Tissue During the Process of Compensatory Overload
  • Authors: S.M.L. Terena, K.P.S. Fernandes, S.K. Bussadori, et al.
  • Published in: Photomedicine and Laser Surgery (2018)
  • Summary: This study examined the effects of infrared laser therapy (LLLT) on collagen deposition and organization in muscle and tendon tissue during compensatory overload in rats. After the removal of synergist muscles, animals were divided into control, hypertrophy, and hypertrophy + LLLT groups. Infrared laser therapy (780 nm, 40 mW) was applied daily. At 7 days, treated muscles showed increased collagen content and better fiber organization. At 14 days, collagen levels decreased in muscle, while tendon fibers remained well-organized. These findings suggest that LLLT helps regulate collagen remodeling, potentially aiding recovery from muscle overload.
  • Link: PubMed Link


18. Far-Infrared Radiation Reduces Pain & Aids Early Recovery After Rotator Cuff Repair

  • Title: The Effect of Postoperatively Applied Far-Infrared Radiation on Pain and Tendon-to-Bone Healing After Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair
  • Authors: J.Y. Yoon, J.H. Park, K.J. Lee, et al.
  • Published in: Korean Journal of Pain (2020)
  • Summary: This randomized study evaluated the effects of far-infrared radiation (FIR) therapy on pain and healing after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair in 38 patients with medium-sized tears. The FIR group received twice-daily 30-minute FIR sessions from week 1 to week 5 post-surgery. At 5 weeks, FIR patients reported significantly lower pain scores (1.5 vs. 2.7, P = 0.019) and greater shoulder flexion at 3 months (151.6° vs. 132.9°, P = 0.045). By 6 months, ROM and healing rates were similar between groups. FIR may be a safe and effective method to reduce early postoperative pain and enhance rehabilitation.
  • Link: PubMed Link


19. Far-Infrared Radiation Reduces Pain After Rotator Cuff Repair

  • Title: Far-Infrared Radiation to Improve Clinical Outcomes After Arthroscopic Rotator Cuff Repair: A Prospective Randomized Comparative Clinical Study
  • Authors: J.H. Park, J.Y. Yoon, M.G. Jeong, et al.
  • Published in: Clinical Orthopaedic Surgery (2023)
  • Summary: This randomized study examined the effects of far-infrared radiation (FIR) therapy on pain, range of motion (ROM), and healing after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair in 64 patients. The FIR group received twice-daily 30-minute FIR sessions for 10 weeks. At 5 weeks and 3 months post-surgery, FIR patients reported significantly lower pain scores (1.7 vs. 2.8, P = 0.002 at 5 weeks; 2.4 vs. 3.2, P = 0.041 at 3 months). However, ROM, functional scores, and healing rates showed no significant differences between groups. FIR may be a safe and effective method to reduce early postoperative pain and support rehabilitation.
  • Link: PubMed Link


20. Shortwave Diathermy Increases Blood Flow and Skin Temperature in Lower Limbs

  • Title: Application of Shortwave Diathermy to Lower Limb Increases Arterial Blood Flow Velocity and Skin Temperature in Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial
  • Authors: N. T. A. De Sousa, E. C. O. Guirro, J. G. Calió, M. C. De Queluz, R. R. De Jesus Guirro
  • Published in: Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy (2017)
  • Summary: This randomized controlled trial examined the effects of shortwave diathermy (SWD) and microwave diathermy (MWD) on blood flow and skin temperature in the lower limbs of healthy women. Forty participants received 20 minutes of either SWD or MWD to the posterior thigh and leg. Measurements taken before, immediately after, and at 10 and 20 minutes post-treatment showed that SWD significantly increased arterial blood flow velocity and sustained skin temperature elevation for at least 20 minutes. MWD also increased skin temperature but had no significant effect on blood flow. These findings highlight SWD’s potential for improving circulation and tissue heating.
  • Link: PubMed Link


21. Low-Level Laser Therapy Effectively Treats Tennis and Golfer’s Elbow

  • Title: Treatment of Medial and Lateral Epicondylitis—Tennis and Golfer's Elbow—With Low-Level Laser Therapy: A Multicenter Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Study on 324 Patients
  • Authors: Z. Simunovic, T. Trobonjaca, Z. Trobonjaca
  • Published in: Journal of Clinical Laser Medicine & Surgery (1998)
  • Summary: This multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluated the effectiveness of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in 324 patients with medial (n=50) or lateral (n=274) epicondylitis. Patients received either trigger point laser therapy, scanner-based laser therapy, or a combination of both. The combination treatment resulted in complete pain relief and improved functional ability in 82% of acute and 66% of chronic cases. The study highlights the importance of proper dosing, technique, and therapist expertise in optimizing LLLT outcomes for epicondylitis.
  • Link: PubMed Link


22. Low-Level Laser Therapy Improves Symptoms of Fibromyalgia

  • Title: Low-Level Laser Therapy for Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
  • Authors: S.-W. Yeh, C.-H. Hong, M.-C. Shih, K.-W. Tam, Y.-H. Huang, Y.-C. Kuan
  • Published in: Pain Physician (2019)
  • Summary: This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in treating fibromyalgia. Nine randomized controlled trials (RCTs) including 325 patients were analyzed. Compared to placebo, LLLT significantly improved Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQ) scores, pain severity, number of tender points, fatigue, stiffness, anxiety, and depression. However, when LLLT was combined with a standardized exercise program, it did not show additional benefits over exercise alone. A separate RCT using combined LLLT/LED phototherapy demonstrated further improvements in most outcomes. Despite some methodological limitations, the findings suggest LLLT is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for fibromyalgia.
  • Link: PubMed Link


23. Low-Level Laser Therapy Provides Short-Term Pain Relief for Chronic Low Back Pain

  • Title: Low-Level Laser Therapy for Chronic Non-Specific Low Back Pain: A Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials
  • Authors: G. Glazov, M. Yelland, J. Emery
  • Published in: Acupuncture in Medicine (2016)
  • Summary: This meta-analysis reviewed 15 randomized controlled trials involving 1,039 participants to evaluate the efficacy of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) for chronic non-specific low back pain (CNLBP). Results showed a significant short-term reduction in pain, particularly in studies using at least 3 Joules per point and in patients with pain lasting less than 30 months. Global assessment of improvement also favored laser therapy at immediate follow-up. However, the benefits were only observed in trials that did not use an acupuncture-based laser approach. The study concludes that LLLT may provide short-term relief for CNLBP, but further high-quality, blinded trials are needed to confirm its effectiveness.
  • Link: PubMed Link


24. Kinesio Taping Reduces Pain and Improves Arm Function in Rotator Cuff Tendonitis

  • Title: Short-Term Effects of Cold Therapy and Kinesio Taping on Pain Relief and Upper Extremity Functionality in Individuals with Rotator Cuff Tendonitis: A Randomized Study
  • Authors: Elif Durgut, Hulya Nilgun Gurses, Kerem Bilsel, Kubra Alpay, Zeynep Hosbay, Gokcer Uzer, Fatih Yildiz, Nurzat Elmali
  • Published in: Medicina (Kaunas) (2024)
  • Summary: This study compared the short-term effects of kinesio taping (KT) and cold therapy (CT) on shoulder pain and arm function in people with rotator cuff tendonitis (RCT). Fifty-two participants were split into two groups and given either KT or CT, along with a standard home exercise program. After three days, the KT group showed improvements in pain, shoulder movement, arm function, and grip strength. The CT group only showed a decrease in pain at rest and at night. The results suggest that KT, when used with exercise, may be more effective than cold therapy for short-term relief and improving daily function in people with RCT.
  • Link: PubMed Link


25. Use NSAIDs Carefully in Sports Injuries, Experts Advise

  • Title: Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs in Sports Medicine: Guidelines for Practical but Sensible Use
  • Authors: J. A. Paoloni, C. Milne, J. Orchard, B. Hamilton
  • Published in: British Journal of Sports Medicine (2009)
  • Summary: This article provides practical guidelines for using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in sports medicine. While NSAIDs help reduce inflammation and pain, they may not be more effective than simple pain relievers like paracetamol and can carry serious side effects such as stomach problems, asthma flare-ups, kidney issues, and heart risks. The authors recommend using NSAIDs only when truly needed, and for the shortest time possible. They stress pairing NSAIDs with rest, ice, compression, and elevation (PRICE), and emphasize that physical rehab is essential. NSAIDs may be most helpful for nerve pain, joint inflammation, and tendon sheath issues, but are not recommended for chronic tendon problems, fractures, or some muscle injuries.
  • Link: PubMed Link


26. Cryotherapy May Help Pain

  • Title: Does Cryotherapy Improve Outcomes With Soft Tissue Injury?
  • Authors: Tricia J. Hubbard, Craig R. Denegar
  • Published in: Journal of Athletic Training (2004)
  • Summary: This review analyzed 22 clinical trials to assess the effectiveness of cryotherapy (ice treatments) for acute soft tissue injuries and post-surgery recovery. Results showed that ice can help reduce pain, especially after surgery, and may lower swelling when combined with compression. However, the studies reviewed were generally low in quality, used different methods and durations, and rarely looked at common injuries like muscle strains. Some evidence suggested that compression might be as effective as ice, and combining ice with exercises or compression may offer the most benefit. Overall, more high-quality research is needed to confirm how and when cryotherapy should be used.
  • Link: PubMed Link


27. Ice Therapy Works—If Used Correctly

  • Title: Ice therapy: how good is the evidence?
  • Author: D.C. MacAuley
  • Published in: International Journal of Sports Medicine (2001)
  • Summary: This systematic review looked at how ice therapy should be applied for acute soft tissue injuries. The review found that ice is most effective when applied as melting ice water (not just cold packs) through a wet towel for 10 minutes at a time, in repeated sessions. This method cools the muscle effectively without damaging the skin. Continuous icing is less safe and may reduce effectiveness. Importantly, ice can impair motor function temporarily, so people should avoid activity for at least 30 minutes after treatment to reduce the risk of re-injury. Overall, ice is helpful, but only when applied with proper timing and method.
  • Link: PubMed Link


28. Meniscectomy Often No Better Than Conservative Treatment

  • Title: A comparative study of meniscectomy and nonoperative treatment for degenerative horizontal tears of the medial meniscus
  • Authors: Ji-Hyeon Yim, Jong-Keun Seon, Eun-Kyoo Song, Jun-Ik Choi, Min-Cheol Kim, Keun-Bae Lee, Hyoung-Yeon Seo
  • Published in: American Journal of Sports Medicine (2013)
  • Summary: This randomized controlled trial compared outcomes of arthroscopic meniscectomy versus nonoperative treatment with strengthening exercises in 102 patients with degenerative horizontal medial meniscus tears. After 2 years, there were no significant differences in pain relief, knee function, or patient satisfaction between the two groups. The findings support the use of conservative treatment as a viable alternative to surgery in many cases.
  • Link: PubMed Link


29. Surgery Does Not Improve Long-Term Outcomes in Degenerative Meniscus Tears

  • Title: Arthroscopic partial meniscectomy for a degenerative meniscus tear: a 5 year follow-up of the placebo-surgery controlled FIDELITY trial
  • Authors: Raine Sihvonen, Mika Paavola, Antti Malmivaara, Ari Itälä, Antti Joukainen, Juha Kalske, Heikki Nurmi, Jaanika Kumm, Niko Sillanpää, Tommi Kiekara, Aleksandra Turkiewicz, Pirjo Toivonen, Martin Englund, Simo Taimela, Teppo L N Järvinen
  • Published in: British Journal of Sports Medicine (2020)
  • Summary: This 5-year follow-up of the FIDELITY randomized, placebo-surgery controlled trial assessed the long-term effects of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy (APM) in 146 adults with degenerative medial meniscus tears. Compared to placebo surgery, APM showed no benefit in knee symptoms, function, or pain reduction, but was associated with a slightly higher risk of radiographic knee osteoarthritis. The findings suggest that APM does not offer long-term advantages and may accelerate joint degeneration in this population.
  • Link: PubMed Link


30. Achilles Tendon Injuries in Athletes

  • Title: Achilles tendon injuries in athletes
  • Authors: M Kvist
  • Published in: Sports Medicine (1994)
  • Summary: This review analyzes the causes, pathology, and treatment outcomes of Achilles tendon injuries in competitive and recreational athletes. Overuse and repetitive stress are primary contributors to both partial and complete ruptures. The study highlights that chronic overloading of the tendon leads to degeneration, including poor-quality tissue remodeling and vascular changes. Notably, athletes with a history of repetitive mechanical stress exhibited a proliferation of immature connective tissue and impaired healing capacity. These findings support the idea that excess mechanical loading during the healing cycle can be harmful and contribute to chronic injury.
  • Link: PubMed Link


31. Efficacy of Foot Orthoses for the Treatment of Plantar Heel Pain

  • Title: Efficacy of foot orthoses for the treatment of plantar heel pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis
  • Authors: Nadine Rasenberg, Henrik Riel, Michael S Rathleff, Sita M A Bierma-Zeinstra, Marienke van Middelkoop
  • Published in: British Journal of Sports Medicine (2018)
  • Summary: This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated randomized controlled trials comparing foot orthoses with control interventions, including no treatment, sham orthoses, and other conservative therapies. The analysis found no significant difference in short-term pain relief between custom, prefabricated, and sham orthoses. Functional outcomes were similarly unaffected. The study concludes that foot orthoses are not superior to sham or conservative treatments in managing plantar heel pain.
  • Link: PubMed Link


32. Biological Responses of Tissues to Stressors

  • Title: Biological Responses of Tissues to Stressors
  • Authors: National Research Council (US) Committee on Military Nutrition Research
  • Published in: Military Strategies for Sustainment of Nutrition and Immune Function in the Field (1999)
  • Summary: This extensive review outlines how repeated mechanical stress and reinjury can disrupt the healing process in ligaments and tendons. It describes that when tendons or related soft tissues are exposed to repetitive strain before sufficient healing has occurred, they undergo degenerative changes. These include inflammation, disorganized collagen fiber structure, vascular proliferation, and interstitial edema. The cumulative effect of this repeated microtrauma can lead to scar formation and chronic dysfunction, making full recovery more difficult. The study highlights that avoiding premature reloading of healing tissues is critical to prevent long-term damage and delayed or incomplete recovery.
  • Link: PubMed Link

33. Activity vs. Rest in the Treatment of Bone, Soft Tissue and Joint Injuries

  • Title: Activity vs. rest in the treatment of bone, soft tissue and joint injuries
  • Authors: J A Buckwalter
  • Published in: Iowa Orthopaedic Journal (1995)
  • Summary: This article explores how different levels of activity affect the healing of musculoskeletal tissues, including bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage, and muscle. It presents evidence that prolonged immobilization can be detrimental, weakening normal tissues and delaying healing. At the same time, it cautions that premature or excessive motion and loading during the early phases of repair can halt or inhibit recovery. The author explains that repair tissues—particularly in tendons and ligaments—are often more sensitive to mechanical stress than mature, healthy tissues. While controlled, gradual reintroduction of motion may support healing, the study strongly emphasizes the need to avoid early overstressing of healing structures. These insights directly support the importance of limiting mechanical strain during the recovery of soft tissue injuries.
  • Link: PubMed Link

34. Risk Factors Affecting Chronic Rupture of the Plantar Fascia

  • Title: Risk factors affecting chronic rupture of the plantar fascia
  • Authors: Ho Seong Lee, Young Rak Choi, Sang Woo Kim, Jin Yong Lee, Jeong Ho Seo, Jae Jung Jeong
  • Published in: Foot & Ankle International (2014)
  • Summary: This retrospective comparative study analyzed 286 patients with plantar fasciitis to identify risk factors associated with chronic rupture of the plantar fascia. Among the 35 patients who experienced a rupture, 33 had received corticosteroid injections, indicating a strong association between steroid use and rupture risk. The study concluded that corticosteroid injections should be administered cautiously due to the significantly higher risk of plantar fascia rupture.
  • Link: PubMed Link

35. A Positive Correlation between Steroid Injections and Cuff Tendon Tears

  • Title: A Positive Correlation between Steroid Injections and Cuff Tendon Tears
  • Authors: Chih-Kai Hong, Chih-Hao Chiu, Chih-Hsiu Cheng, Chih-Yang Lin, Chih-Kai Hong
  • Published in: Journal of Clinical Medicine (2022)
  • Summary: This retrospective cohort study investigated the association between corticosteroid injections and the incidence of rotator cuff tendon tears. Analyzing data from 1,025 patients with shoulder diseases, the study found that those who received steroid injections had a significantly higher incidence of cuff tendon tears (9.8%) compared to those who did not receive injections. The adjusted hazard ratio was 7.44, indicating a strong correlation between steroid injections and increased risk of tendon tears. The authors concluded that steroid injections should be administered cautiously, considering the potential risk of tendon rupture.
  • Link: PubMed Link

36. Patellar Tendon Ruptures in Weight Lifters After Local Steroid Injections

  • Title: Patellar tendon ruptures in weight lifters after local steroid injections
  • Authors: Shen-Kai Chen, Cheng-Chang Lu, Pei-His Chou, Lan-Yuen Guo, Wen-Lan Wu
  • Published in: Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery (2009)
  • Summary: This retrospective study examined seven weight lifters who experienced patellar tendon ruptures following multiple local corticosteroid injections. All patients had a history of receiving steroid injections directly into the patellar tendon. The study found a strong association between repeated steroid injections and the incidence of tendon rupture. Surgical intervention within 72 hours led to favorable outcomes, with most athletes returning to weightlifting within 18 months. The authors concluded that multiple local steroid injections are a significant risk factor for patellar tendon rupture, particularly in athletes.
  • Link: PubMed Link

37. Local and Systemic Side Effects of Corticosteroid Injections for Musculoskeletal Indications

  • Title: Local and Systemic Side Effects of Corticosteroid Injections for Musculoskeletal Indications
  • Authors: Sarah I. Kamel, Humberto G. Rosas, Tetyana Gorbachova
  • Published in: AJR American Journal of Roentgenology (2024)
  • Summary: This comprehensive review outlines both local and systemic adverse effects associated with corticosteroid injections used for musculoskeletal conditions. Local side effects include post-injection flare, skin hypopigmentation and atrophy, infection, tendon rupture, accelerated progression of osteoarthritis, and osseous injury. Systemic side effects encompass adrenal suppression or insufficiency, facial flushing, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and osteoporosis. The authors emphasize the importance of recognizing these potential side effects when counseling patients and planning individual injections. The review highlights the need for further research regarding the long-term complications of continuous corticosteroid use, particularly concerning osseous effects.
  • Link: PubMed Link

38. Platelet-Rich Plasma Injection for Acute Achilles Tendon Rupture (PATH-2 Trial)

  • Title: Platelet-rich plasma injection for acute Achilles tendon rupture: PATH-2 randomised, placebo-controlled, superiority trial
  • Authors: Keene DJ, Alsousou J, Harrison P, et al.
  • Published in: BMJ (2019)
  • Summary: This multicenter, double-blind randomized controlled trial assessed the efficacy of PRP injections in 230 adults with acute Achilles tendon ruptures. Participants received either a PRP injection or a placebo (dry needle) alongside standard rehabilitation. At 24 weeks, there were no significant differences between the groups in muscle-tendon function, patient-reported outcomes, or quality of life. The study concluded that PRP injections did not provide additional benefits over placebo in the recovery from acute Achilles tendon ruptures.
  • Link: PubMed Link

39. Efficacy of Platelet-Rich Plasma Versus Placebo in the Treatment of Tendinopathy

  • Title: Efficacy of Platelet-Rich Plasma Versus Placebo in the Treatment of Tendinopathy: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
  • Authors: Chen X, Jones IA, Park C, Vangsness CT Jr.
  • Published in: American Journal of Sports Medicine (2021)
  • Summary: This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated randomized controlled trials comparing PRP injections to placebo in the treatment of tendinopathy. The pooled analysis revealed no significant differences in pain relief or functional improvement at various time points (4-6 weeks, 12 weeks, and 24 weeks or longer) between the PRP and placebo groups. The study concluded that PRP injections were not superior to placebo in managing tendinopathy.
  • Link: PubMed Link

40. Platelet-Rich Therapies for Musculoskeletal Soft Tissue Injuries

  • Title: Platelet-rich therapies for musculoskeletal soft tissue injuries
  • Authors: Moraes VY, Lenza M, Tamaoki MJ, Faloppa F, Belloti JC.
  • Published in: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2014)
  • Summary: This Cochrane systematic review assessed the effects of platelet-rich therapies in treating musculoskeletal soft tissue injuries, including ligament, muscle, and tendon injuries. The review included randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials comparing PRP with placebo, autologous whole blood, dry needling, or no treatment. The analysis found insufficient evidence to support the use of platelet-rich therapies for improving healing or functional outcomes in soft tissue injuries.
  • Link: PubMed Link

41. FDA Regulation of Stem Cell-Based Therapies

  • Title: FDA regulation of stem cell-based therapies
  • Authors: Dina Gould Halme, DAvid A Kessler
  • Published in: New England Journal of Medicine (2006)
  • Summary: This article reviews the FDA’s stance on the use of stem cell–based therapies, especially for musculoskeletal conditions. The authors note that many clinics market unapproved stem cell injections for orthopedic use, despite the lack of evidence on safety or effectiveness. The only FDA-approved stem cell treatments are for hematologic (blood) disorders. The article cautions that injecting stem cells for soft tissue injuries carries risks such as infection, abnormal cell behavior, and lack of therapeutic effect. It warns patients and providers to be skeptical of unproven regenerative therapies sold under misleading claims.
  • Link: PubMed Link

42. Weak Evidence for the Safety and Effectiveness of Endoscopic Plantar Fascia Release

  • Title: The clinical outcome of endoscopic plantar fascia release: A current concept review
  • Authors: Michael-Alexander Malahias, Erwin Brian Cantiller, Vikram V. Kadu, Sebastian Muller
  • Published in: Foot and Ankle Surgery (2020)
  • Summary: This review evaluated 15 studies on endoscopic plantar fascia release (EPFR), totaling 535 patients and 576 feet. Most studies were low-quality case series, with only two randomized controlled trials. Though subjective scores improved postoperatively, the review concluded there is weak evidence supporting EPFR as safe or effective. The overall complication rate was 11.0%, with persistent heel pain (5.6%), paresthesias or numbness (4.3%), soft tissue healing issues (1.7%), and superficial infection (0.4%) being the most common.
  • PMID: 30665823

43. Influence of Cyclic Loading on the Nutrition of Articular Cartilage

  • Title: Influence of cyclic loading on the nutrition of articular cartilage
  • Authors: Urban JP, Hall AC, Gehl KA
  • Published in: Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (1990)
  • Summary: This study investigated how joint motion affects the transport of nutrients from synovial fluid into articular cartilage. Because cartilage is avascular, it depends on diffusion for nourishment. The authors found that cyclic mechanical loading—mimicking joint movement—enhanced solute transport into cartilage, especially for larger molecules. These findings support the idea that synovial fluid serves as a functional nutrient delivery system, similar to blood, for maintaining cartilage health in joints.
  • Link: PubMed Link

44. Overuse Injuries of the Knee

  • Title: Overuse injuries of the knee
  • Authors: Noyes FR, Barber-Westin SD
  • Published in: Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy (2009)
  • Summary: This review explores the mechanisms and progression of overuse injuries in the knee, focusing on how repetitive microtrauma without adequate recovery leads to chronic joint pathologies. The authors describe how persistent cartilage stress and insufficient healing can contribute to the development of bursitis, patellofemoral disorders, and degenerative conditions. These findings support the concept that unresolved cartilage injuries can eventually result in bursitis through cumulative joint overload and tissue response.
  • Link: PubMed Link

45. Antibiotic Therapy of Septic Bursitis: Its Implication in the Treatment of Septic Arthritis

  • Title: Antibiotic therapy of septic bursitis. Its implication in the treatment of septic arthritis
  • Authors: G Ho Jr, E Y Su
  • Published in: Arthritis and Rheumatism (1981)
  • Summary: This prospective study investigated the clinical course of septic bursitis (primarily olecranon, prepatellar, and infrapatellar bursae) treated with antibiotics and serial needle aspiration. Among 25 patients, those who received treatment within 2 weeks of symptom onset achieved culture sterility in about 1 week. Longer delays led to prolonged infection despite adequate therapy. All 19 patients who received 5 additional days of antibiotics after confirmed sterility were cured. The study confirms that infection of the bursa itself is a direct and treatable cause of bursitis, and that early intervention is essential to avoid prolonged inflammation. The findings have broader implications for managing bacterial infections in other joint-related structures.
  • Link: PubMed Link

46. Repetitive Use and Static Postures: A Source of Nerve Compression and Pain

  • Title: Repetitive use and static postures: a source of nerve compression and pain
  • Authors: Novak CB, Mackinnon SE
  • Published in: Journal of Hand Therapy (1997)
  • Summary: This review explores how repetitive movements and static postures contribute to nerve compression and musculoskeletal pain. The authors describe how certain static positions assumed during daily activities and sleep increase localized pressure on nerves at known entrapment sites. These prolonged compressive forces can lead to neural irritation and injury. The study supports the concept that tissue injury can arise not only from active overuse but also from inactivity under pressure, aligning with the concept of isometric strain.
  • Link: PubMed Link

47. Diffusion of Contrast Agents in Cartilage Under Static Compression

  • Title: Diffusion of MRI and CT contrast agents in articular cartilage under static compression
  • Authors: Xia Y, Grondin M, Lakin BA, Stok KS, et al.
  • Published in: Biophysical Journal (2014)
  • Summary: This study investigated the effects of static compression on nutrient transport in articular cartilage using MRI and CT contrast agents. The results showed that compression significantly reduced the diffusion of both small and large solutes into cartilage. The findings support the conclusion that sustained mechanical pressure can impair nutrient access and overall cartilage health, providing a mechanistic basis for how static loading may contribute to tissue dysfunction or injury.
  • Link: PubMed Link

48. Muscle Pain and Low-Frequency Fatigue After Isometric Contractions

  • Title: Low-frequency fatigue and muscle pain after eccentric and isometric muscle contractions
  • Authors: Newham DJ, Mills KR, Quigley BM, Edwards RH
  • Published in: Journal of Physiology (1989)
  • Summary: This study examined the effects of eccentric and isometric contractions on muscle pain and fatigue. Isometric contractions performed at longer muscle lengths were found to produce greater low-frequency fatigue and delayed muscle soreness, despite generating less peak force. Pain did not occur during the contractions but appeared later, particularly during movement or muscle stretching. These findings support the concept that damage from isometric loading can go unnoticed at the time of strain but become symptomatic afterward.
  • Link: PubMed Link

49. Muscle Damage from Sustained Isometric Contractions

  • Title: Muscle damage in human elbow flexors after sustained isometric contractions
  • Authors: Morgan DL, Proske U, Allen TJ
  • Published in: European Journal of Applied Physiology (2017)
  • Summary: This study investigated how muscle damage accumulates during sustained isometric contractions of the human elbow flexors. Results showed that the majority of damage occurred during the plateau phase of the contraction, not the initiation or relaxation phases. Although mechanical strain was continuous, pain and muscle tenderness did not appear until later, during movement or physical activity. These findings reinforce the concept that tissue injury from isometric strain may not be perceived until after the event, aligning with delayed symptom onset in joint conditions like bursitis.
  • Link: PubMed Link

50. NSAIDs May Impair Tissue Healing and Increase Risk of Reinjury

  • Title: Anti-inflammatory medication after soft-tissue injury: what is the evidence?
  • Authors: Lorrimer D Moseley
  • Published in: Medical Journal of Australia (2004)
  • Summary: This review evaluates the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) following soft-tissue injuries. While NSAIDs can reduce pain and inflammation, the study highlights that they may interfere with the natural healing processes in ligaments, tendons, and muscle tissue. The author cautions that routine use of NSAIDs for these injuries might be inappropriate and could lead to worse outcomes by delaying or impairing tissue regeneration. The findings support the concern that masking pain with NSAIDs may increase the risk of reinjury, as patients become unaware of ongoing tissue vulnerability.
  • Link: PubMed Link


51. Optimal Cold Application Duration for Soft Tissue Injury Recovery

  • Title: The Effect of Soft Tissue Injury Cold Application Duration on Symptoms, Edema, Joint Mobility, and Patient Satisfaction: A Randomized Controlled Trial
  • Authors: Senan Mutlu, Emel Yilmaz
  • Published in: Journal of Emergency Nursing (2020)
  • Summary: This randomized controlled trial evaluated how different durations of cold application (10, 20, and 30 minutes) affected pain, swelling, joint mobility, and patient satisfaction in 105 patients with soft tissue ankle injuries. The 20-minute cold application group showed the greatest pain reduction and highest improvement in joint mobility and satisfaction scores. The 30-minute group experienced significantly more discomfort symptoms (tingling, redness, itching, numbness, and burning). The study concludes that 20 minutes is the optimal duration for cryotherapy to control pain, improve function, and maximize patient comfort.
  • Link: PubMed Link

52. Muscle Healing Considerations of Loading to Prevent Re-Rupture

  • Title: Muscle injuries: biology and treatment
  • Authors: T.A.H. Jarvinen, T.L.N. Jarvinen, M. Kaariainen, H. Kalimo, M. Jarvinen
  • Published in: American Journal of Sports Medicine (2005)
  • Summary: This comprehensive review examines the cellular and biomechanical processes involved in muscle injury and healing. It outlines the three main phases of muscle repair (destruction, repair, and remodeling), and emphasizes the importance of treatment timing. Specifically, the authors caution that the duration of reduced activity should be limited - complete immobilization beyond a few days can compromise healing, but returning to activity too early increases the risk of re-rupture. Scar tissue must first reach sufficient tensile strength to withstand muscle contraction forces. A gradual reintroduction of load, after initial stabilization, is essential to support proper remodeling and minimize complications.
  • Link: PubMed Link


53. Passive Warming Increases Muscle Extensibility and May Reduce Strain Risk

  • Title: The effects of passive warming on muscle injury
  • Authors: T. Strickler, T. Malone, W.E. Garrett
  • Published in: American Journal of Sports Medicine (1990)
  • Summary: This study examined how passive warming affects the mechanical properties of musculotendinous units in rabbits. Muscles warmed to 39 C had a significantly greater elongation before failure compared to controls at 35 C. Though failure force was slightly lower in warmed muscles, their ability to absorb energy before rupture increased. All failures occurred at the distal musculotendinous junction. These results suggest that increasing tissue temperature improves flexibility and may help prevent strain-related injury.
  • Link: PubMed Link


54. Electrical Stimulation Can Induce Significant Muscle Damage

  • Title: Muscle damage induced by electrical stimulation
  • Authors: Kazunori Nosaka, Abdulaziz Aldayel, Marc Jubeau, Trevor C. Chen
  • Published in: European Journal of Applied Physiology (2011)
  • Summary: This study examined the extent of muscle damage caused by electrical stimulation (ES), particularly during isometric contractions. Using typical therapeutic settings (75 Hz, 200-400 us pulse width), ES was found to produce significant muscle damage comparable to that from maximal voluntary eccentric contractions. Indicators of damage included strength loss, increased creatine kinase (CK) levels, and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). The authors attribute the effect to the non-selective, synchronous, and spatially fixed recruitment of motor units under ES, which results in excessive localized mechanical stress. A protective adaptation was noted after repeated ES exposure 2-4 weeks later, but initial applications can be harmful if used during early recovery.
  • Link: PubMed Link


55. Plyometric Exercise Causes Type II Muscle Fiber Damage

  • Title: Type II Muscle Fiber Damage From Plyometric Exercise
  • Authors: John R. Hoffman, Nicholas A. Ratamess, Avery D. Ross, Jie Kang, Jill A. Magrelli, Jay R. Faigenbaum
  • Published in: Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (2012)
  • Summary: This study examined the effects of a single bout of lower-body plyometric exercise on muscle damage in resistance-trained individuals. Muscle biopsies were taken before and 24 hours after 10 sets of 10 maximal squat jumps. Results showed significant ultrastructural muscle damage, especially in type II (fast-twitch) fibers. Serum creatine kinase (CK) levels also increased, and muscle soreness and strength loss were reported post-exercise. The study confirms that plyometric exercise can induce high levels of mechanical stress and functional impairment in skeletal muscle, particularly in fast-twitch fibers most responsible for power movements.
  • Link: PubMed Link


56. Muscle Recovery and Fibrosis After Strain Injury

  • Title: Biomechanical and histological evaluation of muscle after controlled strain injury
  • Authors: P.K. Nikolaou, B.L. Macdonald, R.R. Glisson, A.V. Seaber, W.E. Garrett Jr.
  • Published in: American Journal of Sports Medicine (1987)
  • Summary: This animal study evaluated the healing response of rabbit tibialis anterior muscles after controlled strain injury. Injured muscles initially lost nearly 30% of contractile strength, with function worsening to 51.1% at 24 hours, then recovering to 92.5% of baseline by day 7. Histology showed progressive damage and inflammation: early fiber rupture and hemorrhage gave way to necrosis and leukocyte infiltration at 24–48 hours, followed by fibrotic tissue formation by day 7. Despite early recovery of function, scar tissue development persisted. The study highlights how inflammation and fibrosis contribute to recurrent muscle injuries after strain trauma.
  • Link: PubMed Link



External References



1. Achilles Tendonits Treatments Healthline.com


2. Tendonits Treatments Webmd.com


3. Davis's Law explaining how stretching during healing impacts the healing process Wikipedia.org